An introductory signal is a concise way of alerting the reader to the meaning of the citation that follows. Note: No signal means you are citing something that directly supports your text (like a quote).
Positive Signals (the authority helps you)
- E.g. = "I'm citing one or two sources but there are a bunch I could cite." (Latin for "Exempli gratia," or "for example")
- Accord = "I just cited something that supports my proposition, and now here's another thing that supports it too." (Use when citing another jurisdiction)
- See = "I'm citing something that clearly supports what I just said." (Just a hair less direct than no signal)
- See also = "I have already cited something that directly supports my proposition, and I want to add more." (Use a parenthetical to explain the source's relevance).
- See generally = "I am giving you background material." (Use a parenthetical)
- Cf. (Latin for "confer," which we translate as compare) "I'm citing authority that doesn't exactly support what I just said, but it's close enough to lend support." (Use an explanatory parenthetical)
Negative Signals (the authority hurts you)
- Contra = "I know that this source is on the other side of what I just said."
- But see = "I know this authority clearly does not support my proposition."
- But cf. = "I know these authorities hold differently."
a
Source: Gallagher Law Library, Oct. 2017, http://law.law.washington.edu.
Frome=